What
Does Grammar Have to Do with It?
Correct grammar necessary for the
following reasons:
1. Readability
2. Communication
3. Getting Published
4. Working with an Editor
5. Saving Money
6. Invest in Yourself
7. Respectability, Credibility, and Authority
8. Better Writing All Around
9. Self-Awareness
9. Self-Awareness
10. There’s Only One Reason to Abstain from Good Grammar – plain
laziness.
Grammatical
Mistakes:
‘She was deeply effected by the death of her beloved pet.’‘Its over their.’ She gestured to the large mahogany table slowly decaying in the corner.
Mary didn’t know weather it was time to go or not.
He bought milk when he should of bought bread.
Let’s eat Mary.’ and ‘Let’s eat, Mary. Can you see how this could end up with Mary
being eaten for dinner?
Goats Cheese Salad – crispy lettuce, juicy tomatoes, cucumber, goats, cheese
Vegetarians are certainly going to be put off this salad when they
realize it contains not only cheese, but goats!
My interests include cooking dogs, walking, reading and watching films.
Oh dear, those poor dogs. I wonder who gets to eat the canine culinary
delights created by this person?
There is used in place of their or they're, or one of the others is used incorrectly.
It's and its are not interchangeable.
Your and you're are not the same.
Commas are not used where needed, or they are sprinkled like rose petals everywhere
possible
Run-on sentences create a feeling of confusion in the minds of readers
That's important to Mary and I. Using subject forms of pronouns for objects.
When grammar is needed:
1.
Correct grammar is required (except in the case of
dialogue in dialect).
2.
Correct sentence and grammatical mechanics are needed.
This point means correct subject/verb agreement, correct sentence structure,
correct pronoun reference and usage, sentence variety, etc.3.
3.
Correct spelling is a MUST. Correct spelling includes
using correct words in context. Words that sound the same but are spelled
differently are misspelled if the wrong word is used: For example, they're,
their, and there mean completely different things.
4.
Correct punctuation is important to avoid confusion.
Extra Information
8 Cs of
Writing
- Clarity: the writing, plot, setting are all clear.
- Conciseness: Concise writing expresses essential ideas without
unnecessary words that don’t add anything important and waste the reader’s
time.
- Concreteness: Concrete
writing uses words that paint pictures for the reader, which helps make
facts, products, people and places more realistic and memorable.
Concreteness favors active, descriptive verbs and modifiers over
words that are abstract or passive.
- Correctness: Don’t allow grammar,
sentence structure, spelling, and other problems to distract from writing.
- Coherency: The writing makes sense, is understandable to the
reader.
- Completeness: Remember the Ws of writing: Who, Where, What, Why,
Where, When and How?
Research: Research is important with both nonfiction and fiction.
- Courtesy: Courteous writing applies to nonfiction writing as well as to fiction.
8. Character: Be sure behavior, speech, actions, and reactions are
believable.
Grammar
Review and Tips
(Extra Information)
(Extra Information)
Apostrophes
Rule 1. Use the
apostrophe with contractions. The
apostrophe is always placed at the spot where the letter(s) has been
removed.
Examples: don’t, isn’t; You’re right. She’s a great teacher.
Rule 2. Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the s to show possession in nouns that end in other than s or s sound. Place an apostrophe after a final s to show possession.
Examples: a boy’s hat; a woman’s hat; one actress’ hat; a child’s hat; Ms. Chang’s house;
two houses’ doors
Rule 3. Use the apostrophe where the noun that should follow is implied.
Example: This was his father’s, not his, jacket.
Rule 4. To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe as needed (‘s) when word ends in something besides s and an apostrophe when word ends in s or s sound).
Examples: two boys’ hats; two women’s hats; two actresses’ hats; two children’s hats
the Changs’ house; the Joneses’ golf clubs; the Strauses’ daughter;
the Hastingses’ appointment; the Leeses’ books
Rule 5. Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of a name.
Examples: We visited the Sanchezes in Los Angeles.
The Changs have two cats and a dog.
Rule 6. With a singular compound noun, show possession with ’s at the end of the word.
Example: my mother-in-law’s hat
Rule 7. If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
Example: my two brothers-in-law’s hat
Rule 8. Use the apostrophe and s after the second name only if two people possess the same item.
Examples Cesar and Maribel’s home is constructed of redwood.
Cesar’s and Maribel’s job contracts will be renewed next year. ( Indicates separate ownership.)
Cesar and Maribel’s job contract will be renewed next year. (Indicates joint ownership of one contract.)
Rule 9. Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours,
whose. They already show possession so they do not require an apostrophe.
Examples: Correct: This book is hers, not yours.
Incorrect: Sincerely your’s.
Rule 10. The only time an apostrophe is used for it’s is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.
Examples: It’s a nice day.
It’s your right to refuse the invitation.
It’s been great getting to know you.
Examples: don’t, isn’t; You’re right. She’s a great teacher.
Rule 2. Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the s to show possession in nouns that end in other than s or s sound. Place an apostrophe after a final s to show possession.
Examples: a boy’s hat; a woman’s hat; one actress’ hat; a child’s hat; Ms. Chang’s house;
two houses’ doors
Rule 3. Use the apostrophe where the noun that should follow is implied.
Example: This was his father’s, not his, jacket.
Rule 4. To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe as needed (‘s) when word ends in something besides s and an apostrophe when word ends in s or s sound).
Examples: two boys’ hats; two women’s hats; two actresses’ hats; two children’s hats
the Changs’ house; the Joneses’ golf clubs; the Strauses’ daughter;
the Hastingses’ appointment; the Leeses’ books
Rule 5. Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of a name.
Examples: We visited the Sanchezes in Los Angeles.
The Changs have two cats and a dog.
Rule 6. With a singular compound noun, show possession with ’s at the end of the word.
Example: my mother-in-law’s hat
Rule 7. If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
Example: my two brothers-in-law’s hat
Rule 8. Use the apostrophe and s after the second name only if two people possess the same item.
Examples Cesar and Maribel’s home is constructed of redwood.
Cesar’s and Maribel’s job contracts will be renewed next year. ( Indicates separate ownership.)
Cesar and Maribel’s job contract will be renewed next year. (Indicates joint ownership of one contract.)
Rule 9. Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours,
whose. They already show possession so they do not require an apostrophe.
Examples: Correct: This book is hers, not yours.
Incorrect: Sincerely your’s.
Rule 10. The only time an apostrophe is used for it’s is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.
Examples: It’s a nice day.
It’s your right to refuse the invitation.
It’s been great getting to know you.
Rule 11. The plurals for
capital letters and numbers used as nouns are not formed with apostrophes.
Examples: She consulted with three M.D.s.
BUT
She went to three M.D.s’ offices. (The apostrophe is needed here to show plural possessive.)
She learned her ABCs.
the 1990s not the 1990’s; the ‘90s or the mid-’70s not the ‘90’s or mid-’70’s
She learned her times tables for 6s and 7s.
Exception: Use apostrophes with capital letters and numbers when the meaning would be
unclear otherwise.
Examples: Please dot your i’s. You don’t mean is.
Ted couldn’t distinguish between her 6s and 0’s. You don’t mean Os.
Rule 12. Use the possessive case in front of a gerund (-ing word).
Examples: Alex’s skating was a joy to behold.
This idea does not stop Joan’s inspecting of our facilities next Thursday.
Rule 13. If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that pronoun.
Examples: I appreciate your inviting me to dinner.
I appreciated his working with me to resolve the conflict.
Use the possessive form of nouns before gerunds, too.
Example: I appreciated John’s working with me.
Examples: She consulted with three M.D.s.
BUT
She went to three M.D.s’ offices. (The apostrophe is needed here to show plural possessive.)
She learned her ABCs.
the 1990s not the 1990’s; the ‘90s or the mid-’70s not the ‘90’s or mid-’70’s
She learned her times tables for 6s and 7s.
Exception: Use apostrophes with capital letters and numbers when the meaning would be
unclear otherwise.
Examples: Please dot your i’s. You don’t mean is.
Ted couldn’t distinguish between her 6s and 0’s. You don’t mean Os.
Rule 12. Use the possessive case in front of a gerund (-ing word).
Examples: Alex’s skating was a joy to behold.
This idea does not stop Joan’s inspecting of our facilities next Thursday.
Rule 13. If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that pronoun.
Examples: I appreciate your inviting me to dinner.
I appreciated his working with me to resolve the conflict.
Use the possessive form of nouns before gerunds, too.
Example: I appreciated John’s working with me.
*****
Comma or not to comma
Commas
really are not living entities that reproduce and decide where to live and
where not to live. Neither are they
snowflakes that land wherever the wind may take them. They are not decorations to be used or not as
a person’s fancy may decide. Commas
actually have a vital and exact use in writing stories, poetry, essays, or
articles. Let’s visit Comma World and
see if we can discover when and where commas should be used.
Use a comma to separate three or more words in a series, and use a comma before the conjunction.
Error: Wolves are found in Alaska, Canada and Minnesota.
Correct: Wolves are found in Alaska, Canada, and Minnesota.
Use a comma to separate three or more words in a series, and use a comma before the conjunction.
Error: Wolves are found in Alaska, Canada and Minnesota.
Correct: Wolves are found in Alaska, Canada, and Minnesota.
Names directly addressed need to be set off
by commas.
Error: Don’t run on the ice Mary, or you’ll fall.
Correct: Don’t run on the ice, Mary, or you’ll fall.
Error: Don’t run on the ice Mary, or you’ll fall.
Correct: Don’t run on the ice, Mary, or you’ll fall.
Commas should be used to set off
conjunctive adverbs that introduce a clause or sentence. However, internal or final conjunctive adverbs should be set off by commas only when
they interrupt the flow of a sentence.
Error: Meanwhile the Everly Brothers introduced country harmonies to rock-and-roll.
Correct: Meanwhile, the Everly Brothers introduced country harmonies to rock-and-roll.
Mild interjections not needing exclamation points will need to be set off by commas. These interjections include words such as yes, no, well, okay, and oh.
Error: Well you aren’t clear when you write.
Correct: Well, you aren’t clear when you write.
Error: When I saw the hole in the offensive line wow I knew the safety would sack the quarterback.
Correct: When I saw the hole in the offensive line, wow, I knew the safety would sack the
quarterback.
Error: Oh no John don’t do that.
Correct: Oh, no, John, don’t do that.
Another place commas are used would be between main clauses. The comma comes before the conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, sometimes for) joining the main clauses in a compound sentence.
Error: Rabbits usually run when sensing danger but sometimes they freeze in place.
Correct: Rabbits usually run when sensing danger, but sometimes they freeze in place.
Error: Meanwhile the Everly Brothers introduced country harmonies to rock-and-roll.
Correct: Meanwhile, the Everly Brothers introduced country harmonies to rock-and-roll.
Mild interjections not needing exclamation points will need to be set off by commas. These interjections include words such as yes, no, well, okay, and oh.
Error: Well you aren’t clear when you write.
Correct: Well, you aren’t clear when you write.
Error: When I saw the hole in the offensive line wow I knew the safety would sack the quarterback.
Correct: When I saw the hole in the offensive line, wow, I knew the safety would sack the
quarterback.
Error: Oh no John don’t do that.
Correct: Oh, no, John, don’t do that.
Another place commas are used would be between main clauses. The comma comes before the conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, sometimes for) joining the main clauses in a compound sentence.
Error: Rabbits usually run when sensing danger but sometimes they freeze in place.
Correct: Rabbits usually run when sensing danger, but sometimes they freeze in place.
Equal adjectives should be separated
with a comma. One test is to see if the
word and could be used between the adjectives. If so, then a
comma is needed.
Error: The velvet skirt fell in soft flowing folds.
Correct: The velvet skirt fell in soft, flowing folds. (Test: The velvet skirt fell in soft and flowing
folds.)
Error: The velvet skirt fell in soft flowing folds.
Correct: The velvet skirt fell in soft, flowing folds. (Test: The velvet skirt fell in soft and flowing
folds.)
NOTE: Adjectives that must be in a
specific order are not separated by commas.
Error: They have many, clever ways of surviving.
Correct: They have many clever ways of surviving. (many tells how many clever)
Error: They have many, clever ways of surviving.
Correct: They have many clever ways of surviving. (many tells how many clever)
A phrase adding nonessential information
should be set off by commas.
Error: Wolves in pairs or sometimes in packs hunt animals such as deer and caribou.
Correct: Wolves, in pairs or sometimes in packs, hunt animals such as deer and caribou.
A comma is needed after introductory words.
Error: To be sure smaller animals can make fierce pets.
Correct: To be sure, smaller animals can make fierce pets.
Error: Wolves in pairs or sometimes in packs hunt animals such as deer and caribou.
Correct: Wolves, in pairs or sometimes in packs, hunt animals such as deer and caribou.
A comma is needed after introductory words.
Error: To be sure smaller animals can make fierce pets.
Correct: To be sure, smaller animals can make fierce pets.
A phrase
that is essential to the meaning of sentence should not be set off by commas.
Error: Animals, falling into this category, include rodents and rabbits.
Correct: Animals falling into this category include rodents and rabbits.
Error: Animals, falling into this category, include rodents and rabbits.
Correct: Animals falling into this category include rodents and rabbits.
A clause which doesn’t
add essential information in a sentence should be set off by commas. (A clause has a subject and
verb that go together.)
Error: Clowns who usually cause people to laugh instill fear in some people.
Correct: Clowns, who usually cause people to laugh, instill fear in some people.
Error: Clowns who usually cause people to laugh instill fear in some people.
Correct: Clowns, who usually cause people to laugh, instill fear in some people.
One
should not set off essential clauses
with commas.
Error: The wolf, that is found in Alaska, is called the gray wolf.
Correct: The wolf that is found in Alaska is called the gray wolf.
Error: The wolf, that is found in Alaska, is called the gray wolf.
Correct: The wolf that is found in Alaska is called the gray wolf.
Non-essential appositives should be set off by commas. (An appositive is a noun or pronoun - word, phrase, or clause - placed after another noun or pronoun to provide more
information or rename the
first.)
Error: The gray wolf a wild species of dog is also called the timber wolf.
Correct: The gray wolf, a wild species of dog, is also called the timber wolf.
first.)
Error: The gray wolf a wild species of dog is also called the timber wolf.
Correct: The gray wolf, a wild species of dog, is also called the timber wolf.
But an appositive essential to the meaning of the sentence should not be set off by commas.
Error: The writer, Mark Twain, writes about a young man who runs away.
Correct: The writer Mark Twain writes about a young man who runs away.
Error: The writer, Mark Twain, writes about a young man who runs away.
Correct: The writer Mark Twain writes about a young man who runs away.
Sometimes
a name can be non-essential, and sometimes it can be essential. If a person has only one brother, then the
brother’s name would be non-essential.
If he has more would be essential.
Examples: My brother, Bob, lives in New York. (“I” have only one brother.)
My brother Bob lives in New York. (“I” have two brothers.)
Examples: My brother, Bob, lives in New York. (“I” have only one brother.)
My brother Bob lives in New York. (“I” have two brothers.)
*****
Ellipses
Ellipses
show a pause in thought or speech, or show that speech trails off. Normally, a
space comes before and after the three periods. (NOTE: If closed quotation marks come after ellipses, a
space is not used after the ellipses.) Ellipses should be used seldom.
“I never drink ... wine.”
“I never drink ... wine.”
A
better way would be to revise to avoid ellipses: “I
never drink,” he paused, “wine.” Or maybe, “I never drink, uh, wine.” Or just write, “I never drink wine.”
Ellipses
at the end of a sentence do not have another period, just a space and the three
periods.
We wanted to go to Europe in the spring, but we’ll just have to wait ...
The better way to write the above sentence would be delete the ellipses and just have a period.
Do not add ellipses after any other punctuation: not after a question mark, an exclamation point, a comma, or any other punctuation.
We wanted to go to Europe in the spring, but we’ll just have to wait ...
The better way to write the above sentence would be delete the ellipses and just have a period.
Do not add ellipses after any other punctuation: not after a question mark, an exclamation point, a comma, or any other punctuation.
Another note
- use dashes and ellipses sparingly. Other ways to show hesitation or pauses in
dialogue is possible. I know because I had to break myself of the same habit.
*****
EM/EN dashes
Em/en dashes should have a space
before and a space after the dash. Dashes show a halt in speech or thought,
something has stopped the flow abruptly. Dashes should be used as seldom
as possible. (NOTE: If closed quotation marks come after a dash, a
space is not used after the dash.)
No – I simply can’t.
The better way is to revise so that the dash is eliminated: No, I simply can’t.
No – I simply can’t.
The better way is to revise so that the dash is eliminated: No, I simply can’t.
Dashes and hyphens are NOT interchangeable. Do not use a hyphen in place of a dash or a dash in place of
an hyphen. Double hyphens do NOT take the place of a dash unless you
have programmed your program to change a double hyphen into a dash. Using a
double hyphen rather than a dash makes formatting more difficult. If you are
unsure how to create a dash on your computer, search for information.
*****
Exclamation marks
Exclamation
marks should be used sparingly and never in narration or expository sections.
When possible, information, action, or tags should show the strong emotion rather
than a !. An exclamation point and a tag showing strong emotion should not be
used together, or at least seldom.
Incorrect: “You can’t do that!” Tina cried. Correct: “You can’t do that,” Tina cried.
Incorrect: Roger jumped to his feet! Correct: Roger jumped to his feet.
Incorrect: “You can’t do that!” Tina cried. Correct: “You can’t do that,” Tina cried.
Incorrect: Roger jumped to his feet! Correct: Roger jumped to his feet.
*****
Numbers
Write numbers under 100 in words.
Use numerals for 100 and over. If a number begins a sentence, either revise
sentence so number is moved, or write
number in words.
Pronouns
Pronoun
cases: nominative (
subject) objective possessive
singular 1st person I me my, mine
2nd person you you your, yours
3rd person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its
plural 1st person we us our, ours
2nd person you you your, yours
3rd person they them their, theirs
singular 1st person I me my, mine
2nd person you you your, yours
3rd person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its
plural 1st person we us our, ours
2nd person you you your, yours
3rd person they them their, theirs
Nominative (subjective) cases are used
for subjects and predicate nominatives (nouns and pronouns that follow linking
verbs and rename the subject) – never for objects. Appositives of subjects and
predicate nominatives are also in the nominative (subjective) case.
Objective cases are used for objects
only: direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions, as well as
appositives for those objects. Objective
case is never used for a subject.
Incorrect:
Me and John want to go to the game. Correct: John and I want to go to the game.
Incorrect: The one who lost the game is him. Correct: The one who lost the game is he.
Incorrect: The game was won by you and he. Correct: The game was won by you and him.
Incorrect: Just between you and I, tomorrow will be fun.
Correct: Just between you and me, tomorrow will be fun.
Incorrect: The one who lost the game is him. Correct: The one who lost the game is he.
Incorrect: The game was won by you and he. Correct: The game was won by you and him.
Incorrect: Just between you and I, tomorrow will be fun.
Correct: Just between you and me, tomorrow will be fun.
Indefinite pronouns are words such as each, someone, somebody, no
one, everyone, all, etc. Be sure the pronoun which refers to an indefinite
pronoun is the right case and person. Each, someone, somebody, no one,
everyone, and everything are singular and require a singular pronoun. Check and
be sure whether an indefinite pronoun is singular or plural.
Incorrect: Everyone keeps their own books. Correct: Everyone keeps his (or her) own books.
Or Correct: All the students keep their own books.
Incorrect: Everyone keeps their own books. Correct: Everyone keeps his (or her) own books.
Or Correct: All the students keep their own books.
Clear pronoun reference: Clear pronoun
reference is a must, which means readers can easily recognize the antecedent
for each personal pronoun. An antecedent is the noun or indefinite pronoun to
which the pronoun refers. A pronoun should be close to its antecedent.
“It”
should not begin a sentence unless its antecedent is near the end of the
preceding sentence or unless “it” refers to the preceding thought, clearly
referenced.
Be
careful that personal pronouns are not confusing, that several males aren’t in
the sentence or paragraph so that the reader doesn’t know to which noun the pronouns
he, his, him refer.
Incorrect: The two men ran toward the burning car. The flames trapped James. He couldn’t find
a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared his eyebrows. It couldn’t be real.
Correct: The two men ran toward the burning car where flames trapped James. The two nor
James could find a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared James’ eyebrows. As
the heat intensified, the man inside the car couldn’t believe he wouldn’t escape.
Incorrect: The two men ran toward the burning car. The flames trapped James. He couldn’t find
a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared his eyebrows. It couldn’t be real.
Correct: The two men ran toward the burning car where flames trapped James. The two nor
James could find a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared James’ eyebrows. As
the heat intensified, the man inside the car couldn’t believe he wouldn’t escape.
****
Quotation marks and punctuation
In dialogue,
all punctuation goes inside the end quotation marks, if part of the dialogue.
If the phrase,
clause, or words inside the quotation marks is not dialogue, commas and
periods go inside end quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation marks go
outside the end quotation IF not part of
material quoted.
Incorrect: “I’m not sure”, John replied. “Maybe you
should ask Mary”.
Correct: “I’m not sure,” John replied. “Maybe you should ask Mary.”
Incorrect: John turned to Tim. “Did you say, ‘I’m not going?’” or “Did you say, ‘I’m not going’”?
Correct: John turned to Tim. “Did you say, “I’m not going’?”
Incorrect: My favorite short story is “Hidden Lies”.
Correct: My favorite short story is “Hidden Lies.”
Incorrect: Mary yelled, “Get away from me”!
Correct: Mary yelled, “Get away from me!”
Correct: “I’m not sure,” John replied. “Maybe you should ask Mary.”
Incorrect: John turned to Tim. “Did you say, ‘I’m not going?’” or “Did you say, ‘I’m not going’”?
Correct: John turned to Tim. “Did you say, “I’m not going’?”
Incorrect: My favorite short story is “Hidden Lies”.
Correct: My favorite short story is “Hidden Lies.”
Incorrect: Mary yelled, “Get away from me”!
Correct: Mary yelled, “Get away from me!”
A long quotation, not dialogue: The quoted material, when more than two lines,
should be a block with each line indented from both sides, but no quotation
marks used. Example:
Maria
Jones, “Writing the Watson Way,” gave the following information to writers,
which is her opinion:
Tom Watson was one of the best authors of all times found in the British
Empire. He believed that all writers were responsible for making readers
a part of the action and for them to feel as if they are included.
Tom Watson was one of the best authors of all times found in the British
Empire. He believed that all writers were responsible for making readers
a part of the action and for them to feel as if they are included.
Quotation punctuation: Commas and periods go inside a final
double or single quotation mark.
Question
marks and exclamation marks go inside the final quotation marks IF part of the
dialogue.
Question marks and exclamation marks go outside the final quotation marks if NOT part of the dialogue.
Incorrect: Mark asked, “Did John say, ‘I’m not part of that’” ?
Correct: Mark asked, “Did John say, ‘I’m not part of that’?”
Incorrect: “That’s not correct”, Mark said.
Correct: “That’s not correct,” Mark said.
Question marks and exclamation marks go outside the final quotation marks if NOT part of the dialogue.
Incorrect: Mark asked, “Did John say, ‘I’m not part of that’” ?
Correct: Mark asked, “Did John say, ‘I’m not part of that’?”
Incorrect: “That’s not correct”, Mark said.
Correct: “That’s not correct,” Mark said.
Quotation marks are used around the titles of articles, short stories, and one-act plays when those are used in a sentence or paragraph. Quotations are not used when the titles are at the top of a work.
****
Sentences
and Sentence Structure
What is a sentence?
A
sentence is a group of words (clauses) which have a complete thought.
Clauses: a dependent clause (subordinate clause) is a group of words that has a subject and verb but not a complete thought. (a sentence fragment is a dependent clause); an independent clause (main clause) is a group of words that has a subject and verb and forms a complete thought.
Simple
sentence: one independent clause example: Russel enjoys baseball.
Compound sentence: two or more independent clauses joined correctly with punctuation or a comma and a conjunction. Examples:
March is a windy month in Oklahoma, but it often has bouts of winter weather.
March is a windy month in Oklahoma; it often has bouts of winter weather.
March is a windy month in Oklahoma: It often has bouts of winter weather.
Compound sentence: two or more independent clauses joined correctly with punctuation or a comma and a conjunction. Examples:
March is a windy month in Oklahoma, but it often has bouts of winter weather.
March is a windy month in Oklahoma; it often has bouts of winter weather.
March is a windy month in Oklahoma: It often has bouts of winter weather.
Complex sentence: one independent clause and one or more dependent
clause
example: When the wind blows, the temperatures seem colder.
example: When the wind blows, the temperatures seem colder.
Compound-complex sentence: two or
more independent clauses joined correctly and one or more dependent
clauses
When the wind blows, the temperatures seem colder, and I don’t want to leave the house.
When the wind blows, the temperatures seem colder, and I don’t want to leave the house.
We can use a variety of
sentence types in writing to make the writing more interesting.
Problems with sentence
structures:
Run- sentences: Run-sentences halt a
reader because he or she has to stop and decide what the writer means. Run-on
sentences are compound sentences joined incorrectly. A run-on sentence
interrupts the flow and meaning of what is written.
First of all, a compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, by a semicolon or a semicolon and a comma, or by a colon.
An independent clause or main clause is a group of words with a subject and verb which contains a complete thought.
Independent clause: The boy ran around the house, screaming at the top of his voice.
Dependent clause (not a complete thought}: Screaming at the top of his voice.
A coordinating conjunction is a word such as and, but, or, nor, yet, or for that joins items of equal value. The conjunction may join subjects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and/or clauses.
Now let’s examine run-on sentence problems and how to correct them. The first run-on sentence which we’ll work with is as follows:
Run-on: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
One way to correct the incorrect sentence uses an end mark and a capital letter to separate the independent (or main} clauses into separate sentences.
Separate sentences: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia. The deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
Another way is to use a semicolon between clauses.
Semicolon: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia; the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.” Note: both clauses must be closely related for this method to work.
Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction between clauses also works.
Comma and coordinating conjunction: Secretary of State William Seward brought Alaska from Russia, but the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
A final way to correct a run-on sentence is to introduce one clause with a subordinating conjunction (creating a dependent or subordinate clause - a clause not making a complete thought) and use a comma before the new independent or main clause. This combination creates a complex sentence: the use of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Complex sentence: When Secretary of State William Seward brought Alaska from Russia, the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
A comma splice, another type of run-on sentence, can be corrected in the same ways. In a comma splice, the two independent clauses are joined only by a comma. The sample sentence will be the following:
Comma splice: The president of the company found himself in a quandary, the company was going bankrupt.
Separate sentences: The president of the company found himself in a quandary. The company was going bankrupt.
Semicolon: The president of the company found himself in a quandary; the company was going bankrupt.
Comma and coordinating conjunction: The president of the company found himself in a quandary, for the company was going bankrupt.
Complex sentence: Because the company was going bankrupt, the president of the company found himself in a quandary.
First of all, a compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, by a semicolon or a semicolon and a comma, or by a colon.
An independent clause or main clause is a group of words with a subject and verb which contains a complete thought.
Independent clause: The boy ran around the house, screaming at the top of his voice.
Dependent clause (not a complete thought}: Screaming at the top of his voice.
A coordinating conjunction is a word such as and, but, or, nor, yet, or for that joins items of equal value. The conjunction may join subjects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and/or clauses.
Now let’s examine run-on sentence problems and how to correct them. The first run-on sentence which we’ll work with is as follows:
Run-on: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
One way to correct the incorrect sentence uses an end mark and a capital letter to separate the independent (or main} clauses into separate sentences.
Separate sentences: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia. The deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
Another way is to use a semicolon between clauses.
Semicolon: Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia; the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.” Note: both clauses must be closely related for this method to work.
Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction between clauses also works.
Comma and coordinating conjunction: Secretary of State William Seward brought Alaska from Russia, but the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
A final way to correct a run-on sentence is to introduce one clause with a subordinating conjunction (creating a dependent or subordinate clause - a clause not making a complete thought) and use a comma before the new independent or main clause. This combination creates a complex sentence: the use of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Complex sentence: When Secretary of State William Seward brought Alaska from Russia, the deal was mocked as “Seward’s Folly.”
A comma splice, another type of run-on sentence, can be corrected in the same ways. In a comma splice, the two independent clauses are joined only by a comma. The sample sentence will be the following:
Comma splice: The president of the company found himself in a quandary, the company was going bankrupt.
Separate sentences: The president of the company found himself in a quandary. The company was going bankrupt.
Semicolon: The president of the company found himself in a quandary; the company was going bankrupt.
Comma and coordinating conjunction: The president of the company found himself in a quandary, for the company was going bankrupt.
Complex sentence: Because the company was going bankrupt, the president of the company found himself in a quandary.
Sentence fragments:
When sentences are not correct, are not finely tuned, the quality and clarity of communication is lost. One way to keep sentences from working is the reader stumbling over sentence fragments.
When sentences are not correct, are not finely tuned, the quality and clarity of communication is lost. One way to keep sentences from working is the reader stumbling over sentence fragments.
A sentence
fragment is a group of words punctuated as a sentence but which lacks a
subject, a verb, or both, and which doesn’t contain a complete thought. Let’s
examine the following paragraph to discover some sentence fragments:
Intrepid mountain climbers scaling a tall peak. Climb higher and higher. Up the frozen slopes. When they reach the top. They can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
All of the sentence-like-punctuated groups of words in the preceding are fragments except the last. We will keep the paragraph in mind as we look at some ways to correct sentence fragments.
Sometimes a fragment lacks a subject. Therefore, adding a subject makes the fragment a sentence.
Fragment without a subject: Climb higher and higher.
Sentence: They climb higher and higher.
Another way to correct a sentence fragment would be to connect the fragment with a sentence, rewording it if necessary.
Fragment without subject or verb: Up the frozen slopes.
Sentence: They climb higher and higher up the frozen slopes.
At times a fragment lacks a verb, perhaps using a verbal or verb without a helping verb. The way to correct this type sentence fragment would be to add a verb or change a verbal to a verb.
Fragment without a verb: Intrepid mountain climbers scaling a tall peak.
Sentence by adding a helping verb: Intrepid mountain climbers are scaling a tall peak.
Sentence by changing a verbal to a verb: Intrepid mountain climbers scale a tall peak.
At times, a fragment has a subject and verb but doesn’t contain a complete thought. To create a correct sentence, usually the fragment will need to be connected to a sentence.
Fragment lacking a complete thought: When they reach the top.
Sentence: When they reach the top, they can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
Now let’s see how the original paragraph filled with fragments can be a correctly formatted paragraph.
Intrepid mountain climbers scale a tall peak. They climb higher and higher up the frozen slopes. When they reach the top, they can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
A side note, sometimes writers will use an occasional sentence fragment for effect, but only occasionally. The effect is easily recognized by the reader when this practice is used.
Otherwise, avoiding the problem is best.
Intrepid mountain climbers scaling a tall peak. Climb higher and higher. Up the frozen slopes. When they reach the top. They can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
All of the sentence-like-punctuated groups of words in the preceding are fragments except the last. We will keep the paragraph in mind as we look at some ways to correct sentence fragments.
Sometimes a fragment lacks a subject. Therefore, adding a subject makes the fragment a sentence.
Fragment without a subject: Climb higher and higher.
Sentence: They climb higher and higher.
Another way to correct a sentence fragment would be to connect the fragment with a sentence, rewording it if necessary.
Fragment without subject or verb: Up the frozen slopes.
Sentence: They climb higher and higher up the frozen slopes.
At times a fragment lacks a verb, perhaps using a verbal or verb without a helping verb. The way to correct this type sentence fragment would be to add a verb or change a verbal to a verb.
Fragment without a verb: Intrepid mountain climbers scaling a tall peak.
Sentence by adding a helping verb: Intrepid mountain climbers are scaling a tall peak.
Sentence by changing a verbal to a verb: Intrepid mountain climbers scale a tall peak.
At times, a fragment has a subject and verb but doesn’t contain a complete thought. To create a correct sentence, usually the fragment will need to be connected to a sentence.
Fragment lacking a complete thought: When they reach the top.
Sentence: When they reach the top, they can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
Now let’s see how the original paragraph filled with fragments can be a correctly formatted paragraph.
Intrepid mountain climbers scale a tall peak. They climb higher and higher up the frozen slopes. When they reach the top, they can look forward to an even more treacherous descent.
A side note, sometimes writers will use an occasional sentence fragment for effect, but only occasionally. The effect is easily recognized by the reader when this practice is used.
Otherwise, avoiding the problem is best.
Dangling Modifier, a word, phrase or clause that implies
something different from what the writer meant. This writing error
damages flow and continuity in both fiction and nonfiction. Much of the
time, sentences with dangling modifiers stop readers because they become confused,
asking themselves questions like: Is what I just read correct? Is that
really what the writer meant? This is an example:
Incorrect: While driving home the other night, a tree fell across the road.
Problem: Was the tree driving home the other night?
“While driving home the other night” is the modifier, and since modifiers like to latch onto the nearest noun, in this sentence the modifier latches onto “a tree.” How do you fix a sentence like this? Insert the missing noun (the driver) or change the modifier.
Better: While Emily drove home the other night, a tree fell across the road.
Incorrect: While driving home the other night, a tree fell across the road.
Problem: Was the tree driving home the other night?
“While driving home the other night” is the modifier, and since modifiers like to latch onto the nearest noun, in this sentence the modifier latches onto “a tree.” How do you fix a sentence like this? Insert the missing noun (the driver) or change the modifier.
Better: While Emily drove home the other night, a tree fell across the road.
Parallel structure
requires writers to compose lists and series of words, phrases and clauses in
the same grammatical form. Faulty parallelism often occurs in bullet
lists, particularly in presentation and
training materials, but it can crop up anywhere. Once again, this grammatical
mistake will cause the reader to stop because they know something is wrong …
even if they can’t put a name to it.
Incorrect: She likes to run in the park, sleeping late, and finds joy in making videos.
Problem: The activities she enjoys [“to run in the park” and “sleeping late” and “finds joy in making videos”] do not have the same grammatical form.
Correct: She likes to run in the park, to sleep late, and to make videos. Now the verbs that describe each activity use the same grammatical form.
Also correct: She likes running in the park, sleeping late, and making videos.
Also correct: She likes running in the park, sleeping late, and making videos.
Parallel structure means that the items in a list, or the subheadings throughout a document, are the same part of speech. Remember, an important goal for a writer is to keep the reader reading. Incorrect grammar and word relationships will stop most readers, even if they aren’t sure why.
Incorrect: She likes to run in the park, sleeping late, and finds joy in making videos.
Problem: The activities she enjoys [“to run in the park” and “sleeping late” and “finds joy in making videos”] do not have the same grammatical form.
Correct: She likes to run in the park, to sleep late, and to make videos. Now the verbs that describe each activity use the same grammatical form.
Also correct: She likes running in the park, sleeping late, and making videos.
Also correct: She likes running in the park, sleeping late, and making videos.
Parallel structure means that the items in a list, or the subheadings throughout a document, are the same part of speech. Remember, an important goal for a writer is to keep the reader reading. Incorrect grammar and word relationships will stop most readers, even if they aren’t sure why.
*****
Spelling and Grammar
Words that sound alike but are spelled differently are misspelled if the wrong
spelling is used. For example, they’re, their, and there mean different things
and, if used incorrectly, are misspelled. See Write Tight Tips below for
more information.
*****
Write Tight Tips
“Write tight, delete unnecessary words and
phrases.” Let’s look at the words and
phrases which, if we eliminate them, will tighten our writing.
Note: to discover these in something already written, use the “Find” application under Edit in your word processing program.
Down: A verb that implies down doesn’t require the use of the word.
The boy fell down.
The boy fell.
Up: A verb that implies up doesn’t require the use of the word.
The bird flew up to the tree branch..
The bird flew to the tree branch.
Out: If the verb implies out, using the word is not necessary.
She spread the bedspread out across the bed.
She spread the bedspread across the bed.
Then: If action follows, the word then is implied already.
He aimed the gun, then fired.
He aimed the gun and fired.
Began – started:
He picked up the book and began to read.
He picked up the book and read.
He lifted the pen and started to write.
He lifted the pen and wrote.
Felt – feel: Weak words should be replaced to created a stronger, clearer image.
The chill of the night air had little to do with the cold she felt.
The chill of the night air had little to do with the cold swirling inside her.
Back: If the subject of a sentence is doing one thing and then another, back is usually unneeded.
Jessie shook her head as she frowned back at her friend.
Jessie shook her head as she frowned at her friend.
Back – returned: Sometimes “returned” signals going back to a previous action.
He turned his attention back to the raging storm.
He returned his attention to the raging storm.
Instead: If it’s a given that some action would occur, then “instead” is not needed.
If he misses the chair, he will land on the floor instead of the chair.
He will land on the floor.
To the: Using the phrase often causes wordiness.
She opened the door to the office.
She opened the office door.
Suddenly: If the next action shows the action and follows your use of “suddenly,” using “suddenly” is not necessary.
Suddenly the bull lurched forward.
The bull lurched forward.
Suddenly the boy yelled.
The boy yelled.
or Without warning, the boy yelled.
Be-ing: Sometimes using the present participle of verbs causes longer and weaker sentences.
I should be writing her.
I should write her.
Could: If the sentence conveys information without the word, don’t use.
He could see her walking toward him.
He saw her walking toward him.
better She walked toward him.
Would: Decide if the sentence with the word is stronger or the one without.
Occasionally, he would catch her watching him.
Occasionally, he caught her watching him.
There: Generally using there results in a weak sentence, and it should be removed if possible. Avoid beginning a sentence with “there” unless used before a noun as an adjective.
There were men too close.
Men were too close. Even better would be using an action verb: Men stood too close.
If there were men that close, they would clog any escape.
If men were that close, they would clog any escape.
There, it, this, that should not be used to begin sentences unless used as an adjective for a following noun.
Seemed: The word seemed should only be used to create doubt.
Harry’s presence seemed to dominate the camp.
Harry’s presence dominated the camp.
Was and other linking or to be verbs: Sentences are stronger when strong action verbs are used. Of course at times, linking and to be verbs must be used.
His only fear was the dark.
He only feared the dark.
To be: The phrase results in wordiness.
She needs to be doing her homework.
She needs to do her homework.
That: Sometimes that is necessary, but often is isn’t. Try the sentence without it and see if the meaning changes or not.
The reason that we …
The reason we …
Just: Just is an overused word. We need to try synonyms like merely, only, nearly, or eliminate.
Note: to discover these in something already written, use the “Find” application under Edit in your word processing program.
Down: A verb that implies down doesn’t require the use of the word.
The boy fell down.
The boy fell.
Up: A verb that implies up doesn’t require the use of the word.
The bird flew up to the tree branch..
The bird flew to the tree branch.
Out: If the verb implies out, using the word is not necessary.
She spread the bedspread out across the bed.
She spread the bedspread across the bed.
Then: If action follows, the word then is implied already.
He aimed the gun, then fired.
He aimed the gun and fired.
Began – started:
He picked up the book and began to read.
He picked up the book and read.
He lifted the pen and started to write.
He lifted the pen and wrote.
Felt – feel: Weak words should be replaced to created a stronger, clearer image.
The chill of the night air had little to do with the cold she felt.
The chill of the night air had little to do with the cold swirling inside her.
Back: If the subject of a sentence is doing one thing and then another, back is usually unneeded.
Jessie shook her head as she frowned back at her friend.
Jessie shook her head as she frowned at her friend.
Back – returned: Sometimes “returned” signals going back to a previous action.
He turned his attention back to the raging storm.
He returned his attention to the raging storm.
Instead: If it’s a given that some action would occur, then “instead” is not needed.
If he misses the chair, he will land on the floor instead of the chair.
He will land on the floor.
To the: Using the phrase often causes wordiness.
She opened the door to the office.
She opened the office door.
Suddenly: If the next action shows the action and follows your use of “suddenly,” using “suddenly” is not necessary.
Suddenly the bull lurched forward.
The bull lurched forward.
Suddenly the boy yelled.
The boy yelled.
or Without warning, the boy yelled.
Be-ing: Sometimes using the present participle of verbs causes longer and weaker sentences.
I should be writing her.
I should write her.
Could: If the sentence conveys information without the word, don’t use.
He could see her walking toward him.
He saw her walking toward him.
better She walked toward him.
Would: Decide if the sentence with the word is stronger or the one without.
Occasionally, he would catch her watching him.
Occasionally, he caught her watching him.
There: Generally using there results in a weak sentence, and it should be removed if possible. Avoid beginning a sentence with “there” unless used before a noun as an adjective.
There were men too close.
Men were too close. Even better would be using an action verb: Men stood too close.
If there were men that close, they would clog any escape.
If men were that close, they would clog any escape.
There, it, this, that should not be used to begin sentences unless used as an adjective for a following noun.
Seemed: The word seemed should only be used to create doubt.
Harry’s presence seemed to dominate the camp.
Harry’s presence dominated the camp.
Was and other linking or to be verbs: Sentences are stronger when strong action verbs are used. Of course at times, linking and to be verbs must be used.
His only fear was the dark.
He only feared the dark.
To be: The phrase results in wordiness.
She needs to be doing her homework.
She needs to do her homework.
That: Sometimes that is necessary, but often is isn’t. Try the sentence without it and see if the meaning changes or not.
The reason that we …
The reason we …
Just: Just is an overused word. We need to try synonyms like merely, only, nearly, or eliminate.
there, their, they're: There is a place or placement; their is the possessive form
of they (belongs to them); and they're means they are.
your, you're: Your means belonging to you; you're means you are.
its, it's: Its means belonging to it; it's means it is.
Avoid passive voice – use active voice: Passive voice does not show action by the subject, uses
state of being verbs (was, were, am, are, etc.) as the main verb or
helping verb, or uses
have, had, has as a helping verb. When possible, replace with action verbs. Also passive voice has the subject not doing the acting, but receiving the action.
Avoid state of being verbs when possible. Show, don’t tell.
have, had, has as a helping verb. When possible, replace with action verbs. Also passive voice has the subject not doing the acting, but receiving the action.
Avoid state of being verbs when possible. Show, don’t tell.
The ball was thrown
by the boy.
The boy threw the ball.
The boy threw the ball.
(NOTE: A special thanks to Margot
Finke’s Secrets of “Writing for Children” and the comments on her forum for the
Muse Conference for a small portion of the previous tips.)
Authors need to cut anything that does not add to the story, plot, characters, and/or conflict. Extra words and/or phrases, passive voice, or long, unnecessary descriptions weaken writing. We all need to write tight and write right.
Authors need to cut anything that does not add to the story, plot, characters, and/or conflict. Extra words and/or phrases, passive voice, or long, unnecessary descriptions weaken writing. We all need to write tight and write right.
*****
NOTE: when to use capitalized common nouns
When
a common noun (such as dad, mother, momma) is used as a name, it is
capitalized. When a possessive pronoun or noun comes before the common noun, it
is never capitalized. Usually common nouns are not capitalized unless it is the
first word in a sentence, except used in place of a name.
Incorrect: Tilly told her Mother she would be home soon.
Correct: Tilly told her mother she would be home soon.
Incorrect: Tilly said mother told us to be home soon.
Correct: Tilly said Mother told us to be home soon.
Incorrect: Tilly told her Mother she would be home soon.
Correct: Tilly told her mother she would be home soon.
Incorrect: Tilly said mother told us to be home soon.
Correct: Tilly said Mother told us to be home soon.
*****
When to Use Italics
Use italics for the following -- do
NOT underline:
1. Thoughts (do not use quotation marks, but have words thought in italics)
2. Titles:
2. Titles:
- Journals and Magazines: Time, U.S. News and World Report, Crazyhorse, Georgia Review
- Plays: Waiting for Godot, Long Day's Journey Into Night
- Long Musical Pieces: Puccini's Madama Butterfly, Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker
Suite (but "Waltz of the Flowers"), Schubert's Winterreise
(but "Ave Maria"). For
musical pieces named by type, number and key — Mozart's Divertimento in D major, Barber's Cello Sonata Op. 6 — we use neither italics nor quotation marks. - Cinema: Slingblade, Shine, The Invisible Man
- Television and Radio Programs: Dateline, Seinfeld, Fresh Air, Car Talk
- Artworks: the Venus de Milo, Whistler's The Artist's Mother
- Famous Speeches: Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Washington's Second Inaugural Address (when that is the actual title of the speech)
- Long Poems (that are extensive enough to appear in a book by themselves): Longfellow's Evangeline, Milton's Paradise Lost, Whitman's Leaves of Grass
- Pamphlets: New Developments in AIDS Research
We do not italicize the titles of long sacred works: the Bible, the Koran. Nor do we italicize the titles of books of the Bible: Genesis, Revelation, 1 Corinthians.
3. Names of Vehicles
4. Foreign words or phrases
5.Words as Words: example - The word bass has more than one meaning.
6. For emphasis
7. Words as reproduced sounds: Grrr, the dog warned the children.
4. Foreign words or phrases
5.Words as Words: example - The word bass has more than one meaning.
6. For emphasis
7. Words as reproduced sounds: Grrr, the dog warned the children.
The title of a book, written at the top of the manuscript, is not written in italics
nor underlined.
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